Fig. 5

Visualization of the POAMS. a Architecture comparison between a conventional CNN (left) and the POAMS (right) for further model interpretation. The red dashed rectangles represent the latent space connecting electronic convolutional layers (or optical diffractive layers) and FCLs. b Visualization of the complex optical features behind each diffractive layer. Intensity distributions are normalized. It can be seen that the diffractive layers can mix and redirect the spatial wavevectors ‘intelligently’. c The visualization workflow for searching the specific spatial regions in the detector plane that connects corresponding TC number. Window size (white box size): 2 \(\times\) 2, stride size: 1. d Evolution of obtained characteristic graphs during training. Colormap encoded with TC number. Model at #108 epoch is the best model (with the lowest validation loss)