Fig. 3

Deep learning-enhanced high-speed hemodynamics imaging. a, Mouse cerebrovascular images captured by the TPLSM with a high SNR. b, Quality degradation with the depth-related mixed Poisson-Gaussian noise as raw data, which was restored using TP-SSL (c) and MP-SSL (d). Magnified views of the yellow boxed regions show an out-of-focus vessel (e), with its continuous segments at distinct time points displayed in f, with corresponding segments indicated by orange arrows and nutrient flow in microcirculation by yellow arrows. Notably, MP-SSL resolved the instantaneous positions of nutrient particles (green arrowheads), which remain indistinct (magenta arrowheads) in TP-SSL restoration. Flow velocity is derivable from travel distance (\({\varvec{l}}\)) against travel time (\({\varvec{t}}\)) calculations. g, Raw image depicting rapid hemodynamics within larger brain vessels. h, The restoration outcome using MP-SSL, allowing computation of high flow velocity via single-frame \({\varvec{l}}\) and \({\varvec{t}}\) values using the RTLS technique. Faint vessels (g) in the deeper layer (separated by the white lines) were restored clearly (h). MP-SSL distinguishes previously unclear substances (magenta arrowheads), now evident (green arrowheads). i, Improvement of the 3D SNR. Each line represents 1 of 92 spatiotemporal stacks, accompanied by an overlaid Tukey box-and-whisker plot for statistical context. j, Column bar graph of the 3D SSIM with mean ± SD. k, Volumetric vasculature reconstruction using experimentally captured time-lapse series at 5 μm/stack. Brightened contrast in the lower section (deeper tissue) is revealed in l. m, The denoised brain volume, with the deep portion displayed in n. Volumes are reconstructed for maximum projection and are also projected to 2D (o,p) for dynamic temporal observation. Orange arrows point out instances of the initially obscured vessels (o) significantly influenced by noise, which were efficiently restored through network inference (p). Scale bars: 10 μm in e and 30 μm in the remaining images